Nuclear Governance

 

International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA) 

International organization under UN for monitoring the global proliferation of nuclear resources and technology. It also serve as forum for scientific and technical cooperation on nuclear technology for peaceful purpose. 

Founded- 29 July 1957

Headquarter- Vienna, Austria

It monitor following compensation treaty in case of nuclear disaster

1. Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage(1963)- compensation by operator

2. Convention on Supplementary Compensation(CSC) for Nuclear Damage(1997)- additional compensation by public authority(Government) 

India ratified both convention. India ratified CSC in 2016.

1974- Smiling Buddha Nuclear test by India

1975- Nuclear Suppliers Group(NSG) was formed by IAEA to curb the export of nuclear technology and nuclear fuel. 

1996- CTBT was adopted by UNGA, but not in force as it was not ratified by 8 Annex 2 states(China, Israel, US, etc) 

India, Pakistan and North Korea haven't signed the treaty. 

2005- Noble Peace Prize to IAEA

Non-Proliferation Treaty(NPT) 

Signed- 1968

Nuclear States cut off Date- 1 January 1967

Recognized Nuclear States(1 Jan 1967)- United States(1945), Russia(1949), United Kingdom(1952), France (1960) and China(1964)

Nuclear States not Signed the Treaty- India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea

Nuclear Governance in India

Uranium ore- Mines + Monazite sands(Kerala and other places) 

No of Uranium mines in India- 8(7 in Jharkhand and 1 in Andhra Pradesh)

India’s 1st Uranium Mine- Jaduguda Mine, Jharkhand(1967)

Uranium Mining → Processing(Yellow Cake) → Enrichment → Fuel at Nuclear Plants

Uranium Mining & Processing in India(Yellow Cake)- Uranium Corporation of India Ltd (UCIL), under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)

Uranium Enrichment- Nuclear Fuel Complex, Hyderabad

Nuclear Power Plant in India- under Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)

Asia’s 1st nuclear reactor- Apsara Research Reactor, Mumbai(1954-1956) 

India’s 1st nuclear plant- Tarapur Atomic Power Station(TAPS), Maharashtra(1969). Established with the help of USA. 

Number of Nuclear Reactors- 22 Reactors(7 Plants in 6 States- UP, Rajasthan, Gujarta, Maharashtra, Karnataka, TN)

18- Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors(PHWRs)

4- Light Water Reactors(LWRs)

In India, those reactors which uses imported Uranium are under IAEA safeguards. 

7 operational plants of India

 

Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act(CLNDA), 2010- 

In international conventions, no liability on suppliers. But only in Indian law there is provision of supplier liabilities if supplier made such contract or if nuclear accident happenes because of defective supplies. 

Compensation Amount-

Operator- 1,500 crore rupee max

Government- 300 million SDR max

Supplier- no maximum limit

Nuclear Waste in India

In India, the nuclear waste is governed by Atomic Energy(Safe Disposal Of Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987 (under Atomic Energy Act 1962) 

The Nuclear waste monitoring authority is Atomic Energy Regulations Board(AERB)-  mentioned in Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989 (under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986) 

Nuclear Fuel

Fissile Materials- undergo nuclear fission when struck by a neutron of low energy.Obly fissile materials can self-sustain thermal chain reaction. Ex- U233, U235, Pu239, Pu241

Fertile Materials- Not fissile itself but can be converted into a fissile material by neutron absorption process. Ex- Th232, U234, U238, Pu240

Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of the fissile isotope U235. Most of the remaining 99.3% is U238 which is not fissile but can be converted in a reactor to the fissile isotope Pu239.

Criticality of a Nuclear Plant

Subcritical- Condition of a nuclear reactor system in which nuclear fuel no longer sustains a fission chain reaction because of failure to release a sufficient number of neutrons to sustain the reaction. 

1 neutron produces less than 1 successor neutron. 

Criticality- Production of neutrons in the nuclear reactor is just enough to sustain the fission process. 

1 neutron produces 1 successor neutron. 

Supercritical- State where one neutron causes the production of more than one successor neutron.

1 neutron produces more than 1 successor neutron. 

3 Stage Nuclear Power Program of India

1st Stage(Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor)- Natural uranium fueled pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWR) produce energy and Pu239 as by-product. Heavy water/deuterium oxide(D2O) is used as moderator and coolant.

2nd stage(Fast Breeder Reactor)- Breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates more fissile material than it consumes(more fuel consumption than supplied fuel).

Breeding of fertile U238 to Pu239(fuel of fast breeder reactor). 

The construction of prototype fast breeder reactor of 500 MW(main coolant- Liquid sodium) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu is completed by BHAVINI in 2024.

3rd stage(Thorium Based Reactors)- Thorium based reactor to utilize the thorium reserve of India and to make India self sufficient in nuclear energy generation. 

Small Modular Reactor(SMR) 

SMR is not a type of nuclear reactors, but it represent the size of Nuclear reactor currently under development in various countries. 

Small- Size of the reactor(Power generation capacity upto 300 MW, instead of conventional reactor whose power generation capacity > 700 MW) 

Modular- Assembling at one site and installing at other(Making small reactors at large scale in factories and then installing at the desired location) 

Reactor- Capable of performing Nuclear fission reaction. 

SMR are flexible in design and require smaller footprint. Being mobile and agile technology, SMR can be built in factory unlike the conventional nuclear reactors that are built onsite. Thus, SMRs offers significant savings in cost and construction time. And the small size of reactor assure safety issue(less dangerous than conventional reactors in case of disaster). 

1st SMR prototype(Oct 2022)- floating nuclear power plant Akademik Lomonosov (Pevek, Russia's Far East Region)