Indian History Stone Age

 

Lecture 1 Ancient Indian History

Geological Time Scale(GTS) 

Before moving on stone age, let's have a look on development of life on earth. 

GTS defines evolution of earth(plant, animal and humans).

Division

Eon→Era→Period→Epoch→Age

Currently we are living in Meghalayan Age,  Holocene Epoch.

Evolution of Human(Hominids) 

A gradual change from ape to modern human in africa region.

Hominids in India

Homo Naledi(Rising Star Cave, South Africa) → contemporary of Australopithecus or Homo Habilis and earliest hominds to practice mortuary(Dead burial) and rock arts.

Ramapithecus(female) a Sivapithecus(male) → Skull fossil from Potwar(Punjab, Pakistan)

Homo Sapiens → Skull fossil from middle Narmada valley 

Homo Sapiens Sapiens → Fossil from Fa Hien Cave, Sri Lanka

As, in India no fossils of Homo Habilis and Homo Erectus(that survived) are found, it was concluded by historians that the Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus got extinct with time. And the evolved hominid- Homo Sapiens and Homo Sapiens Sapiens arrived in India from south(migrated from Africa) via sea route as evidenced by the Homo Sapiens Sapiens fossil found in Sri lanka.

Stone Age 

Time period when stone was the main tool of Hominids. 

Paleolithic Culture(Ice Age, Pleistocene Epoch) 

Based on stone tools quality

1. Lower paleolithic (600,00-150,000 BC)  

2. Middle paleolithic (150,000-35,000 BC)    

3. Upper paleolithic (35,000-10,000 BC)

Lower Paleolithic(600,000-150,000 BC)-

Hominid- Homo sapiens(Skull fossil from Hathnora, Narmada valley- 'Narmada Human' equivalent to Homo Erectus but Narmada Human got extinct with time)

Nature- Hunter and Gatherer

Earliest site- Bori (Nagpur, Maharashtra) 

Other Sites- Sohan Valley(Punjab, Pakistan), Places in Kashmir and Thar Desert, Belan Valley(UP), Didwana(Rajasthan), Chirki Nevasa(Maharashtra), Nagarjunakonda(Andhra Pradesh),  Bhimbetka(Bhopal, MP)

Tools- Hand Axe, Cleavers and Choppers

Some historian clubbed nearby Paleolithic sites and named it as a culture.

1. Sona Culture- sites nearby sohan valley. Peebles and choppers are found at sona culture sites.

2. Madrasian Culture- sites nearby Chennai.

3. Nevasan Culture- site in Maharashtra.

4. Acheulian Culture- sites in peninsular India, Deccan, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, East and North East have been categorized in Acheulian culture.

Middle Paleolithic(150,000-35,000 BC)-

Hominid- Homo sapiens → Homo sapiens sapience(fossil from sri lanka)

Tools- are based on Flakes or small piece of stones

Blades, points, borers and scrapers → all are flake tools

Tool Sites- Narmada valley, Tungabhadra valley, Balen valley

Tools

Blades- One side is sharp and another one is blunt.

Points- Miniature version of handaxe with the working end more sharper and pointed.

Borers- used to bore something.

Scrapers- side scraper, end scraper, keeled scraper, round scraper

Upper Paleolithic(35,000-10,000 BC)-

Hominid- Homo sapiens sapience

Climate- Last stage of the ice age, less humid and warm, man starts coming out of the cave

Development- Origin of language(Dravidian speakers came to India via pakistan), Painting

Tools- Flint industries(Quartz crystal), blade and burins(scraper with steeply notched cutting edge)

Tool Sites- (556 sites in india) AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Central MP, Southern UP, Jharkhand

Paintings

 Nature- Petroglyphs(Rock engraved painting), Pictographs(by coloured minerals)

Minerals- Ochre or Geru(Haematite) mixed with lime and water

Themes- Human figure, human activities, geometric design symbol

Colours- white, red and green

                Animal- white, red and green

                Human(stick like form)- green(dancer), red(hunter)

Sohagighat, Mirzapur(UP)-1st rock shelter painting discovered by Archibald Carlyle in 1867

Bhimbetka cave paintings(MP)- Discovered by V.S. Wakankar in 1957

Singhanpur caves(Chhattisgarh)- oldest Sculpture on earth(30000 BC)

Mangar bani hill cave(Aravali Range, Haryana)

Hiregudda/Kupgal(Bellary, Karnataka)

Gudahandi, Yogimatha(Odisha)

Languages in India

Cultural Evolution in India

Upper figure shows ideal condition of Evolution, but in India the evolution happened in simultaneous phase as shown in below figure- Bronze Age in some region and Chalcolith age in other region of India. 

Mesolithic Culture(10,000-4,000 BC) 

Climate- With the end of ice age, adequate rainfall resulted in dense vegetation and forest.

Nature- Hunters and gatherer

Tools- Microlith or tiny tools(1cm to 8 cm)

7,000 BC- Cultivation of plant in sambhar, Rajasthan

5,000 BC-  earliest domestication of animal at Adamgarh(MP), Bagor(Rajasthan)

Sites- (Both cave and coastal sites) Rajasthan, Southern UP, Central and eastern india, Teri Sites(11 sites in tamilnadu)

Teri site(Mesolithic site)

11 non cave sites of TN-

Megnanapuram, Kuttampuli,

Kuthankuli, Sayapuram,

Kattalankulam, Kulattur,

Puttan Taruvai, Surangudi,

Nazareth, Manadu,

Kayamoli

Mesolithic sites

Adamghar- The painting of rhinoceros reveals that the large number of people used to go together for hunting of bigger animal.

Bagor- Largest mesolithic site of india at the bank of the river kothari.

Langhnaj- 14 human skeleton have been found buried in flexed position. And in some cases, legs were folded backward and tied.

Mahadaha(Sarai Nahar Rai)- A man and a woman were buried together.

Guntur(Andhra Pradesh)- Rock painting of a person tilling a piece of land(probably semi settled life). Other paintings were catching of wild goat and painting related to some ritual in which a couple raised their hands and a child standing behind them.

Natural white kaolin and red ochre pigments were used in the cave paintings of Guntur.

Mesolithic Paintings

Size- smaller than upper paleolithic paintings

Colours- red(predominantly), green, white, yellow

Theme- hunting(predominantly), grazing, riding scene

Animal are painted in naturalistic manner, but human were depicted in stylistic manner.

Bhimbetaka Cave Paintings

More than 500 rock paintings of upper paleolithic, mesolithic, chalcolithic, early history and medieval period. However most of the paintings belong to the mesolithic age.

Theme- everyday life, animal, hunting, grazing,riding, geometric designs and symbols.

At many rock art sites, the new painting are painted on top of an older painting.

Lakhudiyar Cave Paintings(Almora, Uttrakhand) 

Group dance painting of humans by forming chain like structure

Neolithic Culture(7,000/4,000-1,000 BC) 

Earliest Site- Mehrgarh(7000 BC), Balochistan

Earliest South India Site- 2500 BC

Largest Site- Mehrgarh

Tools- polished tools(polished stone axe)

Nature- settled life, circular/rectangular mud houses, food producers and animal keepers

Agriculture Produces- ragi, gram, wheat, barley

Domesticated Animals- goats, sheep and cattle. Initially goats predominated, but eventually cattle outnumbered the two other animals.

4500 BC- Potter’s wheel (grey coloured pottery), before that hand made pottery

Neolithic sites

Pit dwelling- Gufkral and Burzahom in Kashmir

At burzahom dogs were buried with their masters

Cotton Cultivation(5000 BC)- Mehrgarh

Rice cultivation(5000 BC)- Koldihwa and Mahagra in Allahabad  

Painting sites- Bhimbetka(MP), Badami, Maski, Kupgal, Piklihal and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka(granite rocks of south india were suitable for rock painting)

Edakkal Caves(Wayanad, Kerala)- Neolithic rock engravings and paintings dating back over 6,000 years. Depicts human and animal figures, symbols, and geometric patterns.

Rock Shelters of Padavayal(Wayanad, Kerala)- Contains prehistoric petroglyphs and paintings from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Artworks depict hunting scenes, human figures, and animals.

Chaturbhujnath Nala(Bhanpura plateau in Chambal valley, Mandsaur, MP)- It depicts scenes of hunter-foragers(Stone Age) and pastorals nature of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic Age. The site located in Gandhisagar Wildlife Sanctuary depicts evolution of human over period of time from prehistoric to historic time.

Neolithic Tools(Region wise)

North western- Rectangular axes with a curved cutting edge

North eastern- rectangular butt and occasional shouldered hoes

Southern- oval sides and pointed butt

Bone tools- Burzahom(pit dwelling, Kashmir), Gufkral(pit dwelling, Kashmir), Chirand(Patna)

Poothinatham(Dharmapurai, TN)- celt, prehistoric tool made of Doloraid stone found

Sivakalai(Tirunelveli, TN)- rice with husk found in a burial urn

Chalcolithic(Copper-Stone Age) Culture

Tools- Copper tools, stone tools, Few bronze(Cu+Tn) tools

Nature- settled life, rural settlement around hills and rivers

Spindle whorls- Discovered from Malwa region

Terracotta(Cooked earth) figure- mother goddess(imangaon)

Agriculture- Rice(eastern india), Wheat and barley(western india)

But no extensive cultivation, as neither hoe nor plough has been found at chalcolithic sites. 

Pottery- ochre coloured pottery(ganga yamuna doab 2000-1500 BC), black and red ware(2000 BC-200 AD)

Most of the chalcolithic culture were younger than the indus valley civilization

Chalcolithic Culture(Pre Harrapa)

Amri and kot diji(sindh)

Kalibanga and Ganeswer(Rajasthan)

Chalcolithic Culture(Harrapa Time)

Ganeshwar-Jodhpur culture(khetri mines, north rajasthan)- copper objects were supplied by ganeshwar culture people to harappan civilization. 

Ahar/Banas Culture(3000-1500 BC, Rajasthan)- Ahar, Gilund, Bansen, Ajmer, Tonk, Banswara, Chittorgarh in Rajasthan

At gilund, large bin with more than 100 seals was found.

Pottery- Black and red ware

Kayatha Culture(MP)- Jawad Mandsaur, Kayatha(choti kali sindh), Dadwada in MP contemporary to Harappan civilization

Chalcolithic Culture(Post Harrapa)

Malwa Culture(1700-1200 BC, MP)- Navdatoli, Eran, Nagda

Jorwe Culture(1400-700 BC, Maharashtra)- jorwe(pravara river), Nevasa, Daimabad(site was fortified with mud wall), Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon(Fortified with moat), Prakash, Nasik

At Inamgaon five room houses, four rectangular and one circular(chief of house) room.

Social inequality- some has big houses and some have small

Large burial of children shows high infant mortality rate because of lack of nutrients

People buried their dead relatives beneath the floor of their house with pots and other objects in north to south direction.

In south india sites, people were buried in east west direction.

Chalcolithic Culture(Paintings)

Colour- green and yellow

Theme- Riding horses and elephants, geometrical shapes, music instrument(harp), battle scenes(Predominant) 

Narsinghgarh(MP)- paintings show skin of spotted deer left for drying(art of tanning skin)

Chhattisgarh- Jogimara caves(1000 BC, Ramgarh hills), Ghodsar and Kohabaur rock art sites(Koriya district), Chitwa Dongri(Durg district)

Chitwa Dongri paintings depict chinese person riding a donkey, dragons and agriculture sceneries. 

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